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Accounting for uncertainty to help engineers design complex systems

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Accounting for uncertainty to help engineers design complex systems



Designing a complex electronic device like a delivery drone involves juggling many choices, such as selecting motors and batteries that minimize cost while maximizing the payload the drone can carry or the distance it can travel.

Unraveling that conundrum is no easy task, but what happens if the designers don’t know the exact specifications of each battery and motor? On top of that, the real-world performance of these components will likely be affected by unpredictable factors, like changing weather along the drone’s route.

MIT researchers developed a new framework that helps engineers design complex systems in a way that explicitly accounts for such uncertainty. The framework allows them to model the performance tradeoffs of a device with many interconnected parts, each of which could behave in unpredictable ways.

Their technique captures the likelihood of many outcomes and tradeoffs, giving designers more information than many existing approaches which, at most, can usually only model best-case and worst-case scenarios.

Ultimately, this framework could help engineers develop complex systems like autonomous vehicles, commercial aircraft, or even regional transportation networks that are more robust and reliable in the face of real-world unpredictability.

“In practice, the components in a device never behave exactly like you think they will. If someone has a sensor whose performance is uncertain, and an algorithm that is uncertain, and the design of a robot that is also uncertain, now they have a way to mix all these uncertainties together so they can come up with a better design,” says Gioele Zardini, the Rudge and Nancy Allen Assistant Professor of Civil and Environmental Engineering at MIT, a principal investigator in the Laboratory for Information and Decision Systems (LIDS), an affiliate faculty with the Institute for Data, Systems, and Society (IDSS), and senior author of a paper on this framework.

Zardini is joined on the paper by lead author Yujun Huang, an MIT graduate student; and Marius Furter, a graduate student at the University of Zurich. The research will be presented at the IEEE Conference on Decision and Control.

Considering uncertainty

The Zardini Group studies co-design, a method for designing systems made of many interconnected components, from robots to regional transportation networks.

The co-design language breaks a complex problem into a series of boxes, each representing one component, that can be combined in different ways to maximize outcomes or minimize costs. This allows engineers to solve complex problems in a feasible amount of time.

In prior work, the researchers modeled each co-design component without considering uncertainty. For instance, the performance of each sensor the designers could choose for a drone was fixed.

But engineers often don’t know the exact performance specifications of each sensor, and even if they do, it is unlikely the senor will perfectly follow its spec sheet. At the same time, they don’t know how each sensor will behave once integrated into a complex device, or how performance will be affected by unpredictable factors like weather.

“With our method, even if you are unsure what the specifications of your sensor will be, you can still design the robot to maximize the outcome you care about,” says Furter.

To accomplish this, the researchers incorporated this notion of uncertainty into an existing framework based on category theory.

Using some mathematical tricks, they simplified the problem into a more general structure. This allows them to use the tools of category theory to solve co-design problems in a way that considers a range of uncertain outcomes.

By reformulating the problem, the researchers can capture how multiple design choices affect one another even when their individual performance is uncertain.

This approach is also simpler than many existing tools that typically require extensive domain expertise. With their plug-and-play system, one can rearrange the components in the system without violating any mathematical constraints.

And because no specific domain expertise is required, the framework could be used by a multidisciplinary team where each member designs one component of a larger system.

“Designing an entire UAV isn’t feasible for just one person, but designing a component of a UAV is. By providing the framework for how these components work together in a way that considers uncertainty, we’ve made it easier for people to evaluate the performance of the entire UAV system,” Huang says.

More detailed information

The researchers used this new approach to choose perception systems and batteries for a drone that would maximize its payload while minimizing its lifetime cost and weight.

While each perception system may offer a different detection accuracy under varying weather conditions, the designer doesn’t know exactly how its performance will fluctuate. This new system allows the designer to take these uncertainties into consideration when thinking about the drone’s overall performance.

And unlike other approaches, their framework reveals distinct advantages of each battery technology.

For instance, their results show that at lower payloads, nickel-metal hydride batteries provide the lowest expected lifetime cost. This insight would be impossible to fully capture without accounting for uncertainty, Zardini says.

While another method might only be able to show the best-case and worst-case performance scenarios of lithium polymer batteries, their framework gives the user more detailed information.

For example, it shows that if the drone’s payload is 1,750 grams, there is a 12.8 percent chance the battery design would be infeasible.

“Our system provides the tradeoffs, and then the user can reason about the design,” he adds.

In the future, the researchers want to improve the computational efficiency of their problem-solving algorithms. They also want to extend this approach to situations where a system is designed by multiple parties that are collaborative and competitive, like a transportation network in which rail companies operate using the same infrastructure.

“As the complexity of systems grow, and involves more disparate components, we need a formal framework in which to design these systems. This paper presents a way to compose large systems from modular components, understand design trade-offs, and importantly do so with a notion of uncertainty. This creates an opportunity to formalize the design of large-scale systems with learning-enabled components,” says Aaron Ames, the Bren Professor of Mechanical and Civil Engineering, Control and Dynamical Systems, and Aerospace at Caltech, who was not involved with this research. 



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Social Security Data Is Openly Being Shared With DHS to Target Immigrants

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Social Security Data Is Openly Being Shared With DHS to Target Immigrants


Last week, the Social Security Administration (SSA) quietly updated a public notice to reveal that the agency would be sharing “citizenship and immigration information” with the Department of Homeland Security (DHS). This data sharing was already happening: WIRED reported in April that the Trump administration had already started pooling sensitive data from across the government for the purpose of immigration enforcement.

This public notice issued by SSA makes that official, months after the fact. The notice is known as a system of record notice (SORN), a document that outlines how an agency will share the data it has, with whom, and for what purpose. This notice is required under the Privacy Act of 1974. Normally, SORNs are issued before any data is shared between agencies, giving the public and government officials sufficient time to offer comment. But WIRED found that the so-called Department of Government Efficiency (DOGE) was pulling in data from across DHS, SSA, the Internal Revenue Service (IRS), and state voter data, among other sources, based largely on the US Citizenship and Immigration Service’s (USCIS) Systematic Alien Verification for Entitlements (SAVE) database.

“There are laws that require the government to inform the public about their use of various kinds of databases and other surveillance technologies,” says Adam Schwartz, privacy litigation director at the Electronic Frontier Foundation, a nonprofit focused on digital privacy and free speech. “If the government starts using the database and does not put out the appropriate disclosure and then later does put out that appropriate disclosure, they still have violated the law.”

The Trump administration has gone to drastic lengths to remake the government in its image. A core component of this has been an effort to vacuum up large swathes of data from across federal agencies, many of which were never meant to be comingled. This has frequently happened regardless of the laws, norms, or procedures that normally govern the access and sharing of sensitive data. The SORN from SSA is just the latest confirmation of exactly how much data is being shared in ways experts tell WIRED is “unprecedented.”

Much of this data sharing begins with misinformation about the data at hand. In the early days of the Trump administration, Elon Musk seized on a misunderstanding of SSA’s data to spread the claim that 150-year-old people were receiving benefits. They weren’t, but DOGE capitalized on the idea that the SSA’s systems were inefficient and fraudulent to burrow into the agency’s data and technology systems. In April, reporting from The New York Times found that in an effort to force immigrants to self-deport, the administration was adding them to the SSA’s database of dead people, effectively meaning that their Social Security numbers could not be used to get jobs or access government services. As part of the effort to combine disparate data across the government to verify citizenship and surveil immigrants, DHS recently published a different but related SORN that effectively transforms SAVE into a voter verification system, which experts also warned could be bypassing the requirements of the Privacy Act.

Leland Dudek, who served as acting commissioner for the Social Security Administration between February and May 2025, led the agency when members of DOGE first appeared. Dudek says he was initially supportive of DOGE and acted as a bridge between SSA staff and members of the DOGE team before becoming disillusioned.



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This 3-in-1 Le Wand Vibrator Is Out of This World

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This 3-in-1 Le Wand Vibrator Is Out of This World


When you flip the Lick around, things look more complicated—especially if you’re new to suction play—but if you take your time to understand these features, you’ll be a happy camper. On this end, you have a suction cup and a tongue-shaped clitoral stimulator. Remove the cup—just a quick twist and it’s off—you can easily access the flicking tongue. The tongue has three speeds that, with a bit of water-based lube, are meant to mimic the sensation of oral sex.

It didn’t feel much like oral sex to me, which probably says more about my partners than the Lick, but it felt great against my clitoris. So much so that this was my favorite function of the Lick. However, I want to stress the importance of lube. To truly experience the incredible sensations, you want it to glide seamlessly over your clitoris. Because your clit doesn’t naturally lubricate, the best way to make that happen is with your favorite water-based lube.

Finally, we get to the suction feature. While not as intense as sex toys that market themselves as bona fide pussy pumps, the suction on the Lick is pretty strong. Before I used it on my vulva, I used the pump of my hand to get an idea of what I was up against, and there was some major sucking happening. If you’re unsure why this might be an asset when dealing with pleasure, it comes down to sensitivity.

With the suction cup on your vulva, each time you press the corresponding button, it tightens its grip, essentially demanding that more blood come into the vulva. When this happens, sensitivity in the area is heightened, which, for some, can lead to stronger and longer orgasms. While not a sensation that everyone may be into, it is one that, if you haven’t tried it, is worth giving it a whirl at least once—if only to prove to yourself it’s not (or absolutely is) for you.

Some Initial Finagling

Courtesy of Le Wand

As much as the Lick’s features deliver on the pleasure front, the four control buttons are a bit difficult to navigate at first. When you hold the Lick in your hand with the suction cup at the top, the buttons descend in order down the shaft. The on/off button is second-to-last—most sex toys give this button its own spot, or at the top or bottom of the layout of buttons. That way, you won’t push it accidentally in the heat of the moment and kill the vibe. Sadly, that exact thing happened to me. The buttons just didn’t make sense in my brain.

Battery life is very much dependent on how you use the Lick. It takes about two hours to fully charge, and with that, you can get anywhere from 80 to 180 minutes of run time. I didn’t exhaust the vibrator by trying to get 180 minutes out of it, but that’s a broad spectrum of time that should be taken into consideration.

Ultimately, the Le Wand Lick 3-in-1 does exactly what it promises: gets you off. It’s waterproof, has a unique look, and its trio of options keeps things interesting. I’ve only used the Lick solo, but I can definitely see the pussy pump feature being a fun little addition to partnered play.



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Squarespace Promo Codes: 10% Off November 2025

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Squarespace Promo Codes: 10% Off November 2025


Squarespace helps small businesses and regular Joe Schmoes to get software help to build their own websites (for both personal and business), even including the commerce side of things with point of sale, inventory, and customer data features (both online or in person). In the age where literally everything is digitized and accessed through the World Wide Web, having an online presence is the most important thing you can do for your business or brand’s growth. Creating a website can be difficult, with the HTMLs and coding and what not—that’s where Squarespace comes in. And we’ve found some of the best Squarespace discounts to help you save while growing your business.

Get 10% Off With This Exclusive Squarespace Promo Code

One of the best things about Squarespace is the versatility of it—compared to other website builders, it’s hard to beat in terms of the large number of layout options, user-friendly interface, and the various features available. Some of those features include built-in ecommerce capabilities (for those hoping to sell their work), promotion marketing tools, and booking and appointment handling. WIRED even named Squarespace one of the best websites to show off your portfolio of work. Right now, first-time users can get 10% off any website or domain plan, plus a 2 week free trial period. All you need to do is click the coupon above and enter the Squarespace promo code at checkout to get the deal.

Use Squarespace Promo Code to Save on a New Website or Domain

Once you find the plan you want—the Squarespace coupon is valid on any plan—enter the Squarespace discount code. Enter the Squarespace promo code WIRED10 into the box at checkout to see the savings roll in.

Save up to 36% on Squarespace Plans

Squarespace continues to reign at the top of our list of the best website builders, with features and customizable templates that help any skill level design like a pro. But don’t just take our word, users can start with a free 14-day trial and then make a decision on which plan best suits their personal or business’ needs. Squarespace frequently releases discount codes for 20% off new websites, but forget needing one–the easiest way to save is through an annual plan, which on average saves around 28-36% by locking in an annual price rather than a pay-as-you-go model with the monthly plan. You’ll need your business to have a website for longevity, so I’d recommend buying long term and saving big.

Prices per plan range, with the basic at $16 per month for 36% off with the yearly plan, Core at $23 per month for 36% off, and Plus at $39 per month for 30% off. The Advanced plan is $99 per month at 28% off—this includes features from cheaper plans, and also has the lowest payment processing fees, improved CSS, and JavaScript customization.

Students Get a 50% Off Squarespace Discount Code

Like Millennials and Gen Z-ers, Squarespace knows just how important our digital footprint is in this day and age. That’s why Squarespace is offering a student discount, where students can get 50% off annual plans to help launch their burgeoning business. All you need to do to get the Squarespace coupon code is verify your student status with Student Beans. Once you’ve verified using the free service, just input the offer code during checkout. Note: authorized students can obtain only one code every 12 months, whether the offer code is redeemed or not.

20% Off for Squarespace Circle Customers

Squarespace Circle perks is how people can get rewarded for using the platform. To join, users must have three Squarespace websites already. There are tons of perks for any small biz owner using Squarespace Circle, including: commission for bringing new folks to Squarespace, a 20% discount on new website subscriptions when you reach Platinum status, 20% off new annual email campaigns and scheduling subscriptions, a six-month free trial, priority customer support, educational resources and more. Although the benefits are tiered based on the number of websites you publish, the free option of Circle offers a 10% discount on annual plans, 3 month free trials, and early access to news on product launches. Check out the links above to see if Squarespace Circle would be a good fit for you (or your business).

Check Out the New Squarespace AI Website Builder

AI is everywhere, and here at WIRED, we know it all too well. Squarespace is jumping on the AI bandwagon, with its new Blueprint AI service, which helps you smartly build your website. It’s free to use, although you need a paid Squarespace account to publish any website you create with Blueprint AI. If that’s not your jam and you prefer to go a little more old school, you can browse pre-built website templates, including specific designs optimized for various business focuses and needs.

Squarespace is one of the most versatile and user-friendly website builders out there, and with WIRED’s Squarespace discount code, you can save 10% on any plan.

Get 20% Off Squarespace Acuity Scheduling (Or Try it for Free)

Squarespace Acuity Scheduling is an online scheduling solution for your business that completes annoying (but necessary) administrative tasks like calendar syncing, automated email and text message reminders, payment processor integrations, and more.

Plus, you don’t even need a Squarespace website to use Acuity. It includes a separate scheduling page clients can visit to book appointments, and you can embed your Acuity scheduler in almost any website. Then, if you decide to add a website from Squarespace, it’s super easy to use Squarespace’s tools and pre-designed templates. They make it easy, with a free trial option that requires no website or credit card. If you decide on a plan, you’ll save 20% annually on Starter and Standard, and19% off Premium.



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