Yan Yao, a professor at University of Houston’s Cullen College of Engineering, along with collaborators from Singapore, Zhejiang University and Seoul National University, have published a review in the journal Science eying alternative metals for battery anodes.

If Yao and his fellow collaborators succeed, it could lead to longer-lasting batteries for electric vehicles, smartphones, laptops and more.

“I think the most exciting part of this is the global interest in this new battery,” Yao said. “But we still have a lot of challenges ahead; there’s still a lot of learning that needs to be done.”

The review highlights the similarities and differences in monovalent metals such as lithium, sodium and potassium, and multivalent metals, including magnesium, calcium and aluminum.

The impetus for this review is that graphite, the standard anode for lithium-ion batteries, is reaching its practical limits. Lithium metal could be a strong alternative as it offers 10 times the charge storage capacity of graphite, but it tends to form tiny spikes called dendrites that can short-circuit batteries.

Meanwhile, multivalent metals present promising alternatives because they are more abundant, safer and potentially able to store more energy at a lower cost. The downside to these metals is multivalent ions move more slowly, which can slow charging, but are less prone to forming dendrites.

To overcome these barriers, researchers are exploring textured electrode surfaces that guide smooth metal growth and developing new electrolytes that optimize ion movement and protective film formation.

“This work underscores the need for continued research to overcome the technical barriers of multivalent metal batteries,” Yao said. “Advances in electrode design, electrolyte chemistry, and battery architecture are crucial to harness the full potential of these materials.”

The study also identifies emerging design principles, such as using locally high salt concentrations and weakly solvating electrolytes for monovalent systems, and strongly solvating, weakly ion-pairing electrolytes for multivalent systems, offering a roadmap for next-generation electrolyte development.

Other contributors include Yuanjian Li, Sonal Kumar, Gaoliang Yang and Zhi Wei Seh from the Institute of Materials Research and Engineering (IMRE) in Singapore; Jun Lu from Zhejiang University; and Kisuk Kang from Seoul National University.

With global demand for high-performance, sustainable batteries growing, this research provides critical guidance for scientists and engineers striving to develop the next generation of energy storage technologies.

It’s official: AOL’s dial-up internet has taken its last bow.

AOL previously confirmed it would be pulling the plug on Tuesday (Sept. 30)—writing in a brief update on its support site last month that it “routinely evaluates” its offerings and had decided to discontinue dial-up, as well as associated software “optimized for older operating systems,” from its plans.

Dial-up is now no longer advertised on AOL’s website. As of Wednesday, former company help pages like “connect to the internet with AOL Dialer” appeared unavailable—and nostalgic social media users took to the internet to say their final goodbyes.

AOL, formerly America Online, introduced many households to the World Wide Web for the first time when its dial-up service launched decades ago, rising to prominence particularly in the 90s and early 2000s.

The creaky door to the internet was characterized by a once-ubiquitous series of beeps and buzzes heard over the phone line used to connect your computer online—along with frustrations of being kicked off the web if anyone else at home needed the landline for another call, and an endless bombardment of CDs mailed out by AOL to advertise free trials.

Eventually, broadband and wireless offerings emerged and rose to dominance, doing away with dial-up’s quirks for most people accessing the internet today—but not everyone.

A handful of consumers have continued to rely on internet services connected over telephone lines. In the U.S., according to Census Bureau data, an estimated 163,401 households were using dial-up alone to get online in 2023, representing just over 0.13% of all homes with internet subscriptions nationwide.

While AOL was the largest dial-up internet provider for some time, it wasn’t the only one to emerge over the years. Some smaller internet providers continue to offer dial-up today. Regardless, the decline of dial-up has been a long time coming. And AOL shutting down its service arrives as other relics of the internet’s earlier days continue to disappear.

Microsoft retired video calling service Skype just earlier this year—as well as Internet Explorer back in 2022. And in 2017, AOL discontinued its Instant Messenger—a chat platform that was once lauded as the biggest trend in online communication since email when it was founded in 1997, but later struggled to ward off rivals.

AOL itself is far from the dominant internet player it was decades ago—when, beyond dial-up and IMs, the company also became known for its “You’ve got mail” catchphrase that greeted users who checked their inboxes, as famously displayed in the 1998 film starring Tom Hanks and Meg Ryan by the same name.

Before it was America Online, AOL was founded as Quantum Computer Services in 1985. It soon rebranded and hit the public market in 1991. Near the height of the dot-com boom, AOL’s market value reached nearly $164 billion in 2000. But tumultuous years followed, and that valuation plummeted as the once-tech pioneer bounced between multiple owners. After a disastrous merger with Time Warner Inc., Verizon acquired AOL—which later sold AOL, along with Yahoo, to a private equity firm.

AOL now operates under the larger Yahoo name. A spokesperson for Yahoo didn’t have any additional statements about the end of AOL’s dial-up when reached by The Associated Press on Wednesday—directing customers to its previous summer announcement.

At the time Verzion it sold AOL in 2021, an anonymous source familiar with the transaction told CNBC that the number of AOL dial-up users was “in the low thousands”—down from 2.1 million when Verzion first moved to acquire AOL in 2015, and far below peak demand seen back in the 90s and early 2000s. But beyond dial-up, AOL continues to offer its free email services, as well as subscriptions that advertise identity protection and other tech support.

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Say a local concert venue wants to engage its community by giving social media followers an easy way to share and comment on new music from emerging artists. Rather than working within the constraints of existing social platforms, the venue might want to create its own social app with the functionality that would be best for its community. But building a new social app from scratch involves many complicated programming steps, and even if the venue can create a customized app, the organization’s followers may be unwilling to join the new platform because it could mean leaving their connections and data behind.

Now, researchers from MIT have launched a framework called Graffiti that makes building personalized social applications easier, while allowing users to migrate between multiple applications without losing their friends or data.

“We want to empower people to have control over their own designs rather than having them dictated from the top down,” says electrical engineering and computer science graduate student Theia Henderson.

Henderson and her colleagues designed Graffiti with a flexible structure so individuals have the freedom to create a variety of customized applications, from messenger apps like WhatsApp to microblogging platforms like X to location-based social networking sites like Nextdoor, all using only front-end development tools like HTML.

The protocol ensures all applications can interoperate, so content posted on one application can appear on any other application, even those with disparate designs or functionality. Importantly, Graffiti users retain control of their data, which is stored on a decentralized infrastructure rather than being held by a specific application.

While the pros and cons of implementing Graffiti at scale remain to be fully explored, the researchers hope this new approach can someday lead to healthier online interactions.

“We’ve shown that you can have a rich social ecosystem where everyone owns their own data and can use whatever applications they want to interact with whoever they want in whatever way they want. And they can have their own experiences without losing connection with the people they want to stay connected with,” says David Karger, professor of EECS and a member of the Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory (CSAIL).

Henderson, the lead author, and Karger are joined by MIT Research Scientist David D. Clark on a paper about Graffiti, which will be presented at the ACM Symposium on User Interface Software and Technology.

Personalized, integrated applications

With Graffiti, the researchers had two main goals: to lower the barrier to creating personalized social applications and to enable those personalized applications to interoperate without requiring permission from developers.

To make the design process easier, they built a collective back-end infrastructure that all applications access to store and share content. This means developers don’t need to write any complex server code. Instead, designing a Graffiti application is more like making a website using popular tools like Vue.

Developers can also easily introduce new features and new types of content, giving them more freedom and fostering creativity.

“Graffiti is so straightforward that we used it as the infrastructure for the intro to web design class I teach, and students were able to write the front-end very easily to come up with all sorts of applications,” Karger says.

The open, interoperable nature of Graffiti means no one entity has the power to set a moderation policy for the entire platform. Instead, multiple competing and contradictory moderation services can operate, and people can choose the ones they like.

Graffiti uses the idea of “total reification,” where every action taken in Graffiti, such as liking, sharing, or blocking a post, is represented and stored as its own piece of data. A user can configure their social application to interpret or ignore those data using its own rules.

For instance, if an application is designed so a certain user is a moderator, posts blocked by that user won’t appear in the application. But for an application with different rules where that person isn’t considered a moderator, other users might just see a warning or no flag at all.

“Theia’s system lets each person pick their own moderators, avoiding the one-sized-fits-all approach to moderation taken by the major social platforms,” Karger says.

But at the same time, having no central moderator means there is no one to remove content from the platform that might be offensive or illegal.

“We need to do more research to understand if that is going to provide real, damaging consequences or if the kind of personal moderation we created can provide the protections people need,” he adds.

Empowering social media users

The researchers also had to overcome a problem known as context collapse, which conflicts with their goal of interoperation.

For instance, context collapse would occur if a person’s Tinder profile appeared on LinkedIn, or if a post intended for one group, like close friends, would create conflict with another group, such as family members. Context collapse can lead to anxiety and have social repercussions for the user and their different communities.

“We realize that interoperability can sometimes be a bad thing. People have boundaries between different social contexts, and we didn’t want to violate those,” Henderson says.

To avoid context collapse, the researchers designed Graffiti so all content is organized into distinct channels. Channels are flexible and can represent a variety of contexts, such as people, applications, locations, etc.

If a user’s post appears in an application channel but not their personal channel, others using that application will see the post, but those who only follow this user will not.

“Individuals should have the power to choose the audience for whatever they want to say,” Karger adds.

The researchers created multiple Graffiti applications to showcase personalization and interoperability, including a community-specific application for a local concert venue, a text-centric microblogging platform patterned off X, a Wikipedia-like application that enables collective editing, and a real-time messaging app with multiple moderation schemes patterned off WhatsApp and Slack.

“It also leaves room to create so many social applications people haven’t thought of yet. I’m really excited to see what people come up with when they are given full creative freedom,” Henderson says.

In the future, she and her colleagues want to explore additional social applications they could build with Graffiti. They also intend to incorporate tools like graphical editors to simplify the design process. In addition, they want to strengthen Graffiti’s security and privacy.

And while there is still a long way to go before Graffiti could be implemented at scale, the researchers are currently running a user study as they explore the potential positive and negative impacts the system could have on the social media landscape.

This story is republished courtesy of MIT News (web.mit.edu/newsoffice/), a popular site that covers news about MIT research, innovation and teaching.