Leah Feiger: Zoë, I am obsessed with this story. Before you continue, I think that it’s really important to say that Caroline, the lovely reporter of this story on your business desk, obtained 1,665 pages of documents about the dispute about Zuckerberg’s house. This story is canon now.

Zoë Schiffer: Caroline Haskins is a complete star. Our fact-checking team literally cried when I asked them. They were like, “Wait, sorry, how many documents are we looking through?” I was like, “Yes.”

Leah Feiger: Shout out to the WIRED research team.

Zoë Schiffer: Absolutely. The school, I think we just have to say, is named after one of the Zuckerberg family chickens. It’s called the Bicken Ben School.

Leah Feiger: I mean, hearing you say this, it’s, I know you’re being serious, but again.

Zoë Schiffer: So, the Crescent City neighborhood in Palo Alto, where the Zuckerbergs live, as you can imagine, is some of the best real estate in the entire country. It’s filled with these gorgeous homes, a ton of greenery. Mark Zuckerberg has been expanding his presence throughout the years in this ultra fancy neighborhood. The plot of land that the Zuckerbergs live on has expanded to include 11 previously separate properties. This is so funny and just such a nightmare. If you’re living on the street, you paid whatever, $5 million for your house, and suddenly all of your neighbors are Mark Zuckerberg.

Leah Feiger: Important to note that not all of them are connecting either. I don’t totally understand what that means. Do they walk through a neighbor’s porch to get to their horse’s pool? What does this entail?

Zoë Schiffer: We have more questions. We have to Google Earth this. I think there’s some holes in this story that we need to fill in. The expansion first became a concern for Mark Zuckerberg’s neighbors, back in 2016, due to fears that his purchases were driving up the market pretty dramatically. But then, about five years later, neighbors started noticing that a school appeared to be operating out of the Zuckerberg compound. So, this is illegal to do without a permit, at least under the area’s residential zoning code. And so, naturally, the neighbors started to alert the city. Caroline Haskins, the reporter on the story, obtained over a thousand documents, like you said, outlining the resulting fight between the neighbors and the city authorities, basically arguing that, it felt to them like the Zuckerbergs were getting special treatment.

A research team at Rice University led by James Tour has developed a two-step flash Joule heating-chlorination and oxidation (FJH-ClO) process that rapidly separates lithium and transition metals from spent lithium-ion batteries. The method provides an acid-free, energy-saving alternative to conventional recycling techniques, a breakthrough that aligns with the surging global demand for batteries used in electric vehicles and portable electronics.

Published in Advanced Materials, this research could transform the recovery of critical battery materials. Traditional recycling methods are often energy intensive, generate wastewater and frequently require harsh chemicals. In contrast, the FJH-ClO process achieves high yields and purity of lithium, cobalt and graphite while reducing energy consumption, chemical usage and costs.

“We designed the FJH-ClO process to challenge the notion that battery recycling must rely on acid leaching,” said Tour, the T.T. and W.F. Chao Professor of Chemistry and professor of materials science and nanoengineering. “FJH-ClO is a fast, precise way to extract valuable materials without damaging them or harming the environment.”

Quick, controlled heating

The rapid increase in the use of lithium-ion batteries in electric vehicles and consumer electronics has intensified the need for sustainable recycling technologies. Existing recycling methods are often costly and inefficient while producing significant amounts of wastewater.

To tackle these challenges, the research team developed a two-step process that uses brief bursts of heat and air instead of harsh chemicals. First, the battery materials are briefly heated with chlorine gas, which breaks them down. They then undergo a second heating in air, transforming most of the metals into forms that can be separated from lithium. Because lithium does not form an oxide as easily as other metals, it remains as the chloride, which can be easily extracted using water.

Previous methods required lengthy processes and strong acids. The FJH-ClO approach, however, uses fast, controlled heating and simple reactions to make the separation process cleaner and faster.

Holistic recovery

Tests have shown that the new process can recover nearly all valuable materials from used batteries, including lithium, cobalt and graphite, with high purity. Early analyses suggest that even at a small scale, it may require about half as much energy, 95% fewer chemicals and significantly lower costs compared to existing methods.

These results establish a scalable, acid-free approach for the comprehensive recovery of lithium-ion battery materials, offering both environmental and economic advantages while setting a new standard for sustainable battery recycling.

“It’s rewarding to see a process that’s both scientifically sound and practically useful,” said Shichen Xu, the study’s first author and a Rice postdoctoral researcher. “That balance is what makes real-world impact possible.”

Future implications

This process paves the way for large-scale implementation and integration into the battery supply chain. It provides a foundation for recovering valuable materials while reducing the need for virgin mining.

With the FJH-ClO process already proven at the laboratory scale, the researchers plan to scale the process through their startup, Flash Metals U.S., a division of Metallium Ltd.

“This is more than just a lab experiment,” Tour said. “It’s a blueprint for how the industry can meet the demand for battery materials without further straining the planet.”

Co-authors of this study include Justin Sharp, Qiming Liu, Jaeho Shin, Haoxin Ye, Kaiwen Yang, Carter Kittrell, Haojie Zhu, Carolyn Teng, Bowen Li, Shihui Chen and Karla Silva from Rice’s Department of Chemistry; Ralph Abdel Nour from its Applied Physics Program and Smalley-Curl Institute; and Khalil JeBailey, Boris Yakobson and Yufeng Zhao from its Department of Materials Science and NanoEngineering.

Due to the intense global impact of fossil fuel overuse on air quality and climate, the search for advanced clean energy solutions has become critical. Metal–air batteries offer a game-changing alternative, holding the potential to replace combustion engines in various applications.

By electrochemically converting oxygen from the air into power, these batteries achieve theoretical energy densities up to twelve times higher than lithium-ion cells, delivering unprecedented efficiency with zero operational emissions.

Challenges facing metal–air battery adoption

Despite their theoretical advantages, metal–air batteries have yet to achieve widespread commercial viability due to several critical obstacles. Current high-performance catalysts primarily depend on expensive precious metals, such as platinum and ruthenium, rendering them economically unfeasible for mass production and large-scale deployment.

Furthermore, most existing catalyst materials are monofunctional, efficiently driving only one of the two essential electrochemical processes—the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) or the oxygen evolution reaction (OER)—but not both.

Compounding these issues, the complex, multi-step synthesis processes required for these catalysts inflate manufacturing costs and severely restrict scalability.

Innovative research tackles catalyst limitations

Against this backdrop, a research team led by Professor Takahiro Ishizaki from the College of Engineering at Shibaura Institute of Technology, Japan, and Assistant Professor Sangwoo Chae from Nagoya University, Japan, has been working hard to find appropriate solutions to these issues.

In their latest study, published in Sustainable Energy & Fuels, they report a revolutionary single-step method for creating highly effective bifunctional catalysts using abundant, low-cost materials.

The researchers utilized the recently pioneered solution plasma process (SPP) for the synthesis, successfully creating cobalt-tin hydroxide (CoSn(OH)₆) composites anchored to various carbon supports. This is a critical distinction from conventional catalyst synthesis: unlike traditional, multi-step methods that require surfactants and extensive post-processing, SPP enables rapid, single-step synthesis at room temperature under ambient atmospheric conditions.

This plasma-based approach not only confers unique surface properties that significantly boost catalytic activity but also dramatically slashes manufacturing complexity and production costs.

The research team systematically produced catalysts with varied compositions and carbon structures, rigorously testing their bifunctional performance in both the oxygen reduction (ORR) and oxygen evolution (OER) reactions—the two pivotal processes determining overall battery efficiency.

Their best-performing catalyst, combining CoSn(OH)₆ with Ketjen Black carbon, achieved remarkable results. For oxygen evolution, it outperformed the industry-standard ruthenium oxide catalyst, requiring lower voltages to achieve the same current densities. In oxygen reduction, it exhibited performance comparable to much more expensive platinum-based catalysts while relying solely on abundant materials.

Moreover, this new catalyst proved to be quite durable, as Prof. Ishizaki says, “Our advanced CoSn(OH)₆–Ketjen Black composite exhibited exceptional long-term stability, maintaining its superior oxygen evolution performance for over 12 hours without degradation, a crucial factor for real-world battery applications.”

Notably, the catalyst’s ability to efficiently catalyze both required reactions represents a significant advancement in the field. The researchers measured a potential gap of just 0.835 V between the two reactions, thus enabling highly efficient energy conversion. This dual functionality eliminates the need for separate catalysts, further reducing system complexity and costs.

Detailed analysis confirms that the superior catalytic performance stems from powerful synergistic interactions between the (CoSn(OH)₆) nanoparticles and the carbon support.

The researchers discovered that the SPP synthesis process is key: it ensures a uniform distribution of active nanoparticles across the carbon surface, which maximizes the exposure of catalytic sites while simultaneously guaranteeing excellent electrical conductivity.

Furthermore, the method offers precise control over particle size and crucial surface properties, allowing for systematic optimization of catalytic activity.

“This breakthrough holds profound potential to customize and manufacture high-performance, durable, and low-cost bifunctional electrocatalysts for critical energy conversion systems,” highlights Prof. Ishizaki. “It offers a truly sustainable material alternative to commercially used precious metal-based catalysts.”

Implications for energy storage and industry

The implications of this work are far-reaching, promising a revolution across the energy sector. Metal–air batteries powered by these newly developed catalysts could fundamentally transform energy storage for electric vehicles, offering a significantly longer range and faster charging capabilities while simultaneously reducing overall costs.

Furthermore, the technology holds immense potential for grid-scale energy storage, which is crucial for the efficient integration of intermittent renewable sources like solar and wind power into electrical networks. The proposed single-step synthesis method offers equally profound industrial advantages.

By eliminating complex, multi-step processing and reliance on expensive raw materials, manufacturers can produce these high-performing catalysts at a fraction of the current cost. Moreover, the ability to synthesize these materials under ambient conditions drastically reduces energy consumption and environmental impact compared to conventional high-temperature, high-pressure methods currently used in battery and catalyst production.

Overall, this research represents a crucial and transformative step toward achieving economically viable clean energy storage on a global scale, poised to significantly accelerate the essential transition away from fossil fuels in the transportation and energy sectors.