Tech
Researchers explore how AI can strengthen, not replace, human collaboration
Researchers from Carnegie Mellon University’s Tepper School of Business are learning how AI can be used to support teamwork rather than replace teammates.
Anita Williams Woolley is a professor of organizational behavior. She researches collective intelligence, or how well teams perform together, and how artificial intelligence could change workforce dynamics. Now, Woolley and her colleagues are helping to figure out exactly where and how AI can play a positive role.
“I’m always interested in technology that can help us become a better version of ourselves individually,” Woolley said, “but also collectively, how can we change the way we think about and structure work to be more effective?”
Woolley collaborated with technologists and others in her field to develop Collective HUman-MAchine INtelligence (COHUMAIN), a framework that seeks to understand where AI fits within the established boundaries of organizational social psychology.
The researchers behind the 2023 publication of COHUMAIN caution against treating AI like any other teammate. Instead, they see it as a partner that works under human direction, with the potential to strengthen existing capabilities or relationships. “AI agents could create the glue that is missing because of how our work environments have changed, and ultimately improve our relationships with one another,” Woolley said.
The research that makes up the COHUMAIN architecture emphasizes that while AI integration into the workplace may take shape in ways we don’t yet understand, it won’t change the fundamental principles behind organizational intelligence, and likely can’t fill in all of the same roles as humans.
For instance, while AI might be great at summarizing a meeting, it’s still up to people to sense the mood in the room or pick up on the wider context of the discussion.
Organizations have the same needs as before, including a structure that allows them to tap into each human team member’s unique expertise. Woolley said that artificial intelligence systems may best serve in “partnership” or facilitation roles rather than managerial ones, like a tool that can nudge peers to check in with each other, or provide the user with an alternate perspective..
Safety and risk
With so much collaboration happening through screens, AI tools might help teams strengthen connections between coworkers. But those same tools also raise questions about what’s being recorded and why.
“People have a lot of sensitivity, rightly so, around privacy. Often you have to give something up to get something, and that is true here,” Wooley said.
The level of risk that users feel, both socially and professionally, can change depending on how they interact with AI, according to Allen Brown, a Ph.D. student who works closely with Woolley. Brown is exploring where this tension shows up and how teams can work through it. His research focuses on how comfortable people feel taking risks or speaking up in a group.
Brown said that, in the best case, AI could help people feel more comfortable speaking up and sharing new ideas that might not be heard otherwise. “In a classroom, we can imagine someone saying, “Oh, I’m a little worried. I don’t know enough for my professor, or how my peers are going to judge my question,” or, “I think this is a good idea, but maybe it isn’t.” We don’t know until we put it out there.”
Since AI relies on a digital record that might or might not be kept permanently, one concern is that a human might not know which interactions with an AI will be used for evaluation.
“In our increasingly digitally mediated workspaces, so much of what we do is being tracked and documented,” Brown said. “There’s a digital record of things, and if I’m made aware that, ‘Oh, all of a sudden our conversation might be used for evaluation,’ we actually see this significant difference in interaction.”
Even when they thought their comments might be monitored or professionally judged, people still felt relatively secure talking to another human being. “We’re talking together. We’re working through something together, but we’re both people. There’s kind of this mutual assumption of risk,” he explained.
The study found that people felt more vulnerable when they thought an AI system was evaluating them. Brown wants to understand how AI can be used to create the opposite effect—one that builds confidence and trust.
“What are those contexts in which AI could be a partner, could be part of this conversational communicative practice within a pair of individuals at work, like a supervisor-supervisee relationship, or maybe within a team where they’re working through some topic that might have task conflict or relationship conflict?” Brown said. “How does AI help resolve the decision-making process or enhance the resolution so that people actually feel increased psychological safety?”
Creating a more trustworthy AI
At the individual level, Tepper researchers are also learning how the way in which AI explains its reasoning affects how people use and trust it. Zhaohui (Zoey) Jiang and Linda Argote are studying how people react to different kinds of AI systems—specifically, ones that explain their reasoning (transparent AI) versus ones that don’t explain how they make decisions (black box AI).
“We see a lot of people advocating for transparent AI,” Jiang said, “but our research reveals an advantage of keeping the AI a black box, especially for a high ability participant.”
One of the reasons for this, she explained, is overconfidence and distrust in skilled decision-makers.
“For a participant who is already doing a good job independently at the task, they are more prone to the well-documented tendency of AI aversion. They will penalize the AI’s mistake far more than the humans making the same mistake, including themselves,” Jiang said. “We find that this tendency is more salient if you tell them the inner workings of the AI, such as its logic or decision rules.”
People who struggle with decision-making actually improve their outcomes when using transparent AI models that show off a moderate amount of complexity in their decision-making process. “We find that telling them how the AI is thinking about this problem is actually better for less-skilled users, because they can learn from AI decision-making rules to help improve their own future independent decision-making.”
While transparency is proving to have its own use cases and benefits, Jiang said the most surprising findings are around how people perceive black box models. “When we’re not telling these participants how the model arrived at its answer, participants judge the model as the most complex. Opacity seems to inflate the sense of sophistication, whereas transparency can make the very same system seem simpler and less ‘magical,'” she said.
Both kinds of models vary in their use cases. While it isn’t yet cost‑effective to tailor an AI to each human partner, future systems may be able to self-adapt their representation to help people make better decisions, she said.
“It can be dynamic in a way that it can recognize the decision-making inefficiencies of that particular individual that it is assigned to collaborate with, and maybe tweak itself so that it can help complement and offset some of the decision-making inefficiencies.”
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Tech
Meet the Linen Sheets That Will Last You a Lifetime
Comparing Our Favorite Linen Sheets
Honorable Mentions
Not all sheets are created equal. The linens below are good but not as great as our picks above.
Avocado Natural Linen Sheets for $549: These were our previous organic pick, but they’re no longer GOTS-certified or marked organic by Avocado. These are still great, heavyweight linen sheets, and still have an Oeko-Tex certification to confirm no toxic materials were used during production.
Brooklinen Washed Linen Core Set for $359: This is the updated version of these linen sheets, but they feel similarly to the previous edition; a little itchy at the start compared to our other picks, and felt a little warm to sleep on too. They’re solid linen sheets, and often have new colors available (seasonal colorways do sell out fast) but all of our picks are softer, and some are cheaper, too.
Buffy Belgian Linen Sheet Set for $279: These sheets feel rough if you touch them with just your hand or sit on the sheets, but lying down entirely on these, they felt much more comfortable. These are solid, breathable linen sheets with flax sourced from Belgium. Both my husband and I had insane dreams the week we slept on these sheets, so if you’re looking for more fun dreams, give these affordable linen sheets a whirl.
Company Store Legends Hotel Washed Linen Sheet Set for $357: If you’re looking for something with a little more heft but don’t want to drop $500+, then The Company Store’s Legends Hotel Washed Linen Sheets sit nicely in the middle of price and weight. These sheets have a little more weight than The Citizenry and Pottery Barn, but don’t feel as heavy as Cultiver and Rough Linen. Many colors and sizes are currently out of stock, though.
Cozy Earth Linen Duvet Cover for $288: This cover has a great softness to it and feels ideal for summertime, but the zipper on my set broke almost immediately. It could just be bad luck, since we usually love Cozy Earth’s home goods.
Ikea Dytag Duvet Cover: My favorite linen duvet cover and pillowcase set from Ikea has been replaced with a few different cheaper lines, including the Angslilja ($40) and Strandlummer ($65). My Dytag lasted me a few years, though cheaper linen sets might not last as long as that set did.
Naturepedic Organic Linen Fitted Sheet & Pillowcases Set for $305: This set is heavy, but still manages to be really breathable; it was downright chilly to sleep on alone in the winter. It’s also a rare organic set, with GOTS-certified organic flax used. There’s no top sheet available right now, but you can get a fitted sheet and two pillowcases together, or separately.
Rough Linen Orkney Sheets for $498: WIRED reviewer Scott Gilbertson loves these super heavyweight linen sheets, and says they’re best for confirmed linen lovers with how heavy and rough they are. They’re completely sold out, otherwise they’d be a pick in the guide. We’ll reinstate them once they’re back in stock.
Rough Linen Smooth Linen Sheets for $498: These linen sheets live up to the name with a silky, smooth feel, like a linen twist on sateen. They were a little heavy for my liking, but if that’s up your alley, it’s a beautiful set of sheets that will last.
Slumber Cloud Performance Linen Blend for $329: This is a blend set that uses Slumber Cloud’s patented Outlast fiber, which is part of what makes the brand’s cooling Tencel lyocell sheets so good. These linen blend sheets were soft to the touch, but didn’t pack as cooling of an experience compared to regular linen and Slumber Cloud’s other sheets.
Thuma Flax Linen Sheet Set for $315: These linen sheets from the famed Thuma were solid all-around linen, keeping me nice and cool. (So cool that they’re a pick in our cooling sheets guide.) They also had a good weight and structure to them. They’re not quite as soft as our picks above, but were still a little softer than other options like Brooklinen.
FAQs
What’s So Great About Linen?
Linen is a woven fabric made from flax plants. It’s a highly breathable material that doesn’t trap heat, so it keeps you cool during warmer nights. It’s great for people who sleep hot. It’s rougher at first than a simple cotton sheet set, but it should soften up the more it’s washed. Linen is often more expensive than other sheets, but it’s generally more durable than percale or other cotton weaves, so a good sheet set should last a long time.
It does tend to be more expensive since flax is more time-consuming to harvest and process into sheets, but high-quality linen should last you for years to come, making it an investment in both staying cool (which is very important for sleep quality) but also in gorgeous bedding you can enjoy for years. The structure of linen always lends a nice-styled look to even the messiest of beds, too. I love sleeping on linen so long as it isn’t too scratchy, which is one of the many things I looked for while testing and searching for the best linen sheets.
It’s not for everyone, but if you love linen apparel, you’ll probably love linen sheets. If you’re unsure, start with a single piece (like a duvet or flat sheet) and see what you think. Most of the options we recommend come in a linen set, but you can also buy many of these pieces separately, allowing you to try a linen pillowcase or fitted sheet before wading into a full-on linen bed.
You’ll often see terms like “Belgian flax” and “European linen” used to describe various linens. Some of these are in the name, some aren’t—Pottery Barn’s sheets are named Belgian flax, while The Citizenry’s sheets mention that they’re French flax but sustainably made in Portugal. So what does it all mean? Which is best?
Europe has a long history of growing flax and making linen. It’s a preferred source, particularly Belgium and France, which is why some sheets will call out those countries specifically. But according to World Linen, there isn’t a huge difference among European countries—it’s mostly a marketing tactic. You’ll likely be just as happy with any European source of linen, and there is a European Linen certification sheets can receive to confirm that’s where they’re sourced from.
Having Europe in the name doesn’t necessarily mean it was made there, though. After the flax is grown, it needs to be processed, spun, and woven into sheets, which may or may not happen in Europe. Some companies use the term “Belgian flax” or “European flax” to signify that the flax is from that area, but it wasn’t processed there. Some companies make sheets in other European countries, like The Citizenry’s Portugal-made sheets, while other makers might do production outside of Europe, like Quince, which processes its sheets in China and India.
Does Linen Use Thread Count?
You won’t usually see thread counts listed for linen sheets, or even if you do, there’s another term you’ll find along side it: GSM, or a phrase like “woven to 160 GSM.” This describes the weight of the fabric. (“GSM” stands for grams per square meter.) It’s similar to silk, which is also described in weight rather than thread count to give you a more accurate idea of how heavy the sheets will be. The rule of thumb with linen is that under 150 GSM is light, between 150 and 300 is medium, and anything over 300 is heavy.
Weight is also something that shouldn’t change about linen: It’ll get softer over time, but it won’t get lighter. If you have a preference for a certain weight of sheets, you can see whether these details are included to find out exactly what you’re buying.
How Do You Wash Linen Sheets?
If you want your linen to last for years, you have to take care of it. Our preferred way is to wash with cold water and mild detergent. Line-drying is recommended for getting the longest life. Be sure to check the tag, since some makers might have specific washing instructions. You should wash any sheets you buy before you sleep on them, and washing linen will start to soften them up—remember, it takes a while for softening to happen!
I actually break one of these rules. Since I don’t have space for a drying line, I tumble dry all of my linen, and I’ve done so for years with fine results. But if you use a dryer, expect to clean up a lot of lint. With every set I’ve tried, the lint tray gets super full, and some sheets like Quince’s filled the lint trap so much that it started to overflow.
How Do We Test Linen Sheets?
We test sheets by—you guessed it—sleeping on them. We test all bed sheets for a minimum of two nights, often ending up closer to seven nights or more for our top picks. We look for breathability, airflow, and the weight of the sheets, and we research where each maker sources their linen from and where it’s produced (which can impact both the quality and the price point). We’ve tested a little over a dozen different linen sheets so far for this guide.
While the best way to care for linen is to line dry it, we wash and dry linen sheets in regular machines to see how they hold up (and if the lint tray overflows!) and wash them a couple of times before including them in a guide.
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Tech
Opposed to Data Centers? The Working Families Party Wants You to Run for Office
The Working Families Party said Thursday that it is putting out a specific recruitment call for people who are organizing against data centers in their communities to run for office.
The announcement comes amid a period of heightened political turmoil around data centers, as some high-profile Democrats wade into the fight. Earlier this week, three Democrats in the Senate sent letters seeking information from Big Tech companies about how data centers impact electricity bills, while senator Bernie Sanders, the independent from Vermont, became the first national politician to call for a moratorium on data center construction.
“We see our role as responding to what working families and working people are concerned about, what issues are keeping them up at night,” says Ravi Mangla, the national press secretary for the Working Families Party. “We would be ignoring the needs of our constituents if we were not responding to the issue of data centers and their impacts on communities.”
The Working Families Party was originally founded in New York in the late 1990s; it now has chapters in states across the country. While it (mostly) doesn’t seat candidates independently, the progressive third party’s endorsements and organizing power can carry real weight in the races where it chooses to get involved. It endorsed Zohran Mamdani in New York’s mayoral race this year, as well as a string of other successful candidates.
Opposition to data centers has skyrocketed in some areas of the country over the past year, as tech companies have ramped up their investment in building out hundreds of facilities across the country. Polling from the outlet Heatmap released in September shows that less than half of Americans of all political persuasions would welcome a data center being built near where they live, while a recent survey from a private industry group shows that community opposition increased in the second quarter of this year, successfully stalling or stopping billions of dollars in data center development.
In many regions of the country, affordability issues—including rising electricity bills—are becoming tangled with other concerns around data centers, like worries over the climate and water impacts, or even noise from the centers themselves. Concern over data centers played a role in a number of midterm elections, including factoring into several races in Virginia, which has the highest concentration of data centers in the country and is facing rising demands for energy from more facilities projected to come online through the end of the decade. The political ripple around data centers has lasted beyond the midterms—and stretched beyond just Virginia. In the past week, officials in Chandler, Arizona voted 7-0 to reject a proposed data center in the city, despite high-profile lobbying from former senator Kyrsten Sinema, while voters in Georgia on Tuesday elected a newcomer to the state legislature who has promised legislation to make data centers “pay their fair share.”
Mangla says the Working Families Party decided to launch the recruitment effort after seeing how the issue played out in Virginia’s elections, and after observing some of the intense local pushback around the country. “You can’t fill a community center or a town hall just organically,” he says. “There are people who are clearly stepping up in their communities, organizing their neighbors, and leading the charge to push back against these data centers.”
Tech
A Filmmaker Made a Sam Altman Deepfake—and Got Unexpectedly Attached
Director Adam Bhala Lough didn’t set out to make a documentary about a digital simulacrum of Sam Altman.
But after about 100 days of texting and emailing the OpenAI CEO for an interview—with no response, he claims, and with financiers hounding him to make good on his original pitch—Lough was at his wit’s end.
He’d exhausted just about every angle. “Once I reached that point, I gave up and I pivoted to gate-crashing OpenAI,” he says. Though he’d employed a similar tactic in his Emmy-nominated 2023 documentary Telemarketers—a chronicle of industry-wide corruption in the telemarketing business—it wasn’t a filmmaking style he felt all that comfortable with. “It was a fortress. I was able to slip through the gate, and immediately security grabbed me and physically removed me from the premises.”
So begins Deepfaking Sam Altman, Lough’s portrait of how AI is reshaping society and his quest to talk to the man behind it. When his original plan fell through he drew inspiration from Altman himself. “The Scarlett Johansson controversy erupted,” he says. In 2024, the actress publicly called out OpenAI for seeming to copy her voice for its new AI voice assistant Sky. “It was at that point where I got the idea to do the deepfake.” (In a May 2024 statement, Altman apologized to Johansson and said Sky’s voice was “never intended to resemble” hers.)
What originally starts out as a simple voice clone balloons into a full deepfake of Altman called Sam Bot, which Lough travels to India to have created. This being a Lough film, though, nothing goes according to plan. Without spoiling too much, Sam Bot eventually becomes its own entity, and the film takes an even stranger—and revelatory—dive from there. “There’s parallels between this movie and Terminator 2: Judgement Day, but there’s none of the violence,” he says. Lough grew up during what he calls the “AI 1.0 era.” His obsession with James Cameron’s Terminator 2 was a major influence on his craft.
Deepfaking Sam Altman, which is based partially on the New York Magazine story casting Sam Altman as the Oppenheimer of our age, features commentary from former OpenAI safety engineer Heidy Khlaaf, who tells Lough, “We’re starting to see OpenAI dip its toes in military uses, and I cannot imagine something like Dall-E and ChatGPT being used for military assists. That really scares me, given how inaccurate those systems are.”
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