Tech
Surprising iron corrosion during electrochemical charging explains origin of atypical hydrogen permeation behavior
The transition from a carbon-based fuel economy to that centered on hydrogen has gained interest worldwide given the focus on sustainability. As researchers in corrosion, it became obvious for us to look at the underlying interaction of hydrogen with materials as it forms the backbone of the hydrogen infrastructure, especially with respect to hydrogen transportation. For example, pipelines carrying hydrogen blended with natural gas offer an economic means of transporting hydrogen over long distances.
Of critical interest for such applications is the hydrogen diffusion characteristics in such steels as it gives fundamental knowledge of the threshold amount of hydrogen that can cause failure.
Reliably measuring the diffusion coefficient of hydrogen in steels is of great value to researchers working in the area of hydrogen-material interactions.
When we set out to measure the diffusion characteristics of hydrogen in steels, we thought it could simply be followed from the ASTM (American Society for Testing of Materials) standard already available. We thought that we would indeed measure a typical hydrogen permeation transient using a classical Devanathan-Stachurski double permeation cell.
In this approach, upon hydrogen charging on one side of the sample, the first atomic hydrogen is detected on the other side after a breakthrough time, followed by a “rise” in the hydrogen flux and finally attaining a steady state from which the diffusion coefficient could be evaluated.
Although it looked straightforward, we faced challenges in implementing this in our lab. The first question we struggled with was obtaining the so-called steady state hydrogen permeation flux. For a typical electrochemical permeation measurement, we had to charge the sample with hydrogen at a certain current density.
The only question was by how much? From what we saw in literature, we tried to use severe charging conditions in alkaline electrolyte to begin with and we could not achieve this steady state. The flux reached a maximum and started to decrease thereafter, showing atypical behavior.
Trying to repeat the measurements were in vain, but what we noticed and what indeed puzzled us was some visible color change on the hydrogen charging side of the steel surface just after the measurement.
So, we immediately investigated the surface using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) to indeed observe cracked layers and randomly distributed particles all over the sample. These particles showed a peak corresponding to oxygen when analyzed with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS), prompting us to think they were iron oxides and encouraging us to use complementary characterization techniques to further identify them.
We used Raman spectroscopy to identify mixed iron oxides comprising of magnetite (Fe3O4), hematite (Fe2O3), and lepidocrocite (γ-FeOOH). Further, we calculated, using X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), depth profiling, the thickness of the oxide to be around 50 nm.
We could also confirm this using Focused Ion Beam (FIB) milling and SEM cross-section imaging. But, formation of iron oxides during hydrogen charging was really surprising because the electrochemical conditions we used don’t generally support iron corrosion.
So, we proposed a hypothesis that during hydrogen charging, the formation of hydrogen bubbles occurs, and they attach to the surface of the steel. Due to this, the polarization potential applied to the steel is actually not realized on the surface as there is continuous and excessive hydrogen bubble formation.
As a result, an Ohmic drop across the bubbles occurs which, along with a higher pH value due to hydrogen evolution, could result in iron corrosion, according to the Pourbaix diagram.
This results in iron oxide formation, which we also confirmed by measuring the thickness using XPS and observation of particles on the surface using SEM for an independent electrochemical hydrogen charging experiment.
The results of this study were published in Corrosion Science.
But one might wonder how does the formation of iron oxide explain the atypical behavior of the hydrogen permeation flux. We suggested that these hydrogen bubbles, after growing up to a critical size, detach from the surface and therefore expose the underlying iron oxide.
The oxides then immediately undergo reduction owing to the electrochemical potential applied, and further result in the formation of fresh catalytic iron that enhances the hydrogen activity and promotes higher hydrogen flux.
On the other hand, the formation of iron oxide could also block hydrogen permeation, which could explain the decrease after reaching the maximum in the hydrogen permeation flux.
Having found out that severe charging leads to iron corrosion and surface effects during hydrogen permeation, we employed electrochemical impedance spectroscopy to further prove that the iron oxide grows during hydrogen charging.
By measuring a corresponding higher charge transfer resistance for the oxide, we indeed showed that it influences the hydrogen permeation behavior. We also made use of the electron backscattered diffraction (EBSD) technique to show that such severe charging leads to generation of new dislocations that introduce artifacts into the measurement of the hydrogen diffusion constant.
All this meant that we had to devise a strategy to avoid severe charging, so we came up with the idea of “soft” charging where we used much lower hydrogen charging current densities for performing the hydrogen permeation measurement.
Guess what, the idea worked!
We could measure a steady-state in the hydrogen permeation flux which did not decrease with time. We could clearly correlate this observation to the significant decrease in the amount of iron oxides visible on the surface using SEM and the almost negligible number of dislocations introduced using EBSD.
Thus, we suggest the use of “soft” hydrogen charging to measure reliably the diffusion constant of hydrogen in steels.
In essence, we report a surprising observation of iron corrosion during hydrogen charging in an electrochemical permeation measurement and suggest ways to circumvent this for reliably measuring the diffusion constant of hydrogen in steels. We believe this could be of great use to researchers working in the area of hydrogen-material interactions, the electrochemistry and corrosion community.
This story is part of Science X Dialog, where researchers can report findings from their published research articles. Visit this page for information about Science X Dialog and how to participate.
More information:
Gautam Sudha et al, Towards establishing reliable approaches for measurement of hydrogen diffusion characteristics using the electrochemical permeation technique, Corrosion Science (2026). DOI: 10.1016/j.corsci.2025.113449
Vijayshankar Dandapani is an Associate Professor in the Metallurgical Engineering and Materials Science Department, Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), Bombay where he heads the Electrochemistry at Interface Lab. He works in the area of hydrogen, electrochemistry and corrosion.
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Tech
The Best Memorial Day Tech Deals Worth Checking Out
When you think of Memorial Day sales, you probably think of mattresses and other home goods. And while those items are definitely discounted, now is also a good time to purchase tech. Personally, I’m not buying anything right now unless it’s discounted—and fortunately many of our top picks are. Whether you’re shopping for a power bank, a new pair of headphones, or some other gadget, I’ve rounded up the best Memorial Day deals for your perusal. We’ll update this article again over the weekend.
Check out our buying guides for more recommendations, including the best headphones, the best laptops, and the best cheap phones.
Updated May 22: We’ve checked prices, removed expired deals, added ten new deals, and ensured accuracy throughout.
WIRED Featured Deals:
Sony WH-1000XM5 for $248 ($152 off)
The Sony WH-1000XM5 have a very frustrating name, but they’re the predecessor to our favorite wireless headphones, and they’re still an excellent pick if you don’t want to shell out for the new WH-1000XM6. They go on sale frequently, but rarely drop this low in price, which comes within $5 of their all-time low. If you’re in the market for over-ear headphones, they’re hard to beat. They’re comfortable, portable, lightweight, and stylish, and they’ll make your music sound great no matter what you like to listen to.
Tech
Shein Buying Everlane Actually Makes Perfect Sense
On Friday, the ultrafast-fashion giant Shein finalized its acquisition of Everlane, a US clothing retailer that made its name by promising “radical transparency” into how its clothes were made. Neither company disclosed the price of the deal, but Puck reported last weekend that it clocked in at $100 million.
Founded in 2010, Everlane became synonymous with a certain strain of millennial consumerism that was supposed to be the exact opposite of Shein. It mainly sold elevated basics, and told a generation of anxious and high-minded shoppers that they could feel morally good about buying yet another pair of plain ballet flats or black high-waisted skinny jeans. Shein, by contrast, became notorious by flooding the internet with astonishingly cheap, trendy clothing produced at enormous scale. It has been criticized for years for alleged poor labor practices.
Given how differently Shein and Everlane positioned themselves, many people online felt the acquisition fell somewhere between darkly ironic and outright dystopian. The fashion writer Derek Guy, better known online as the “menswear guy,” articulated the vibe in a post on X: “Under Shein,” he wrote, “Everlane’s ‘radical transparency’ means you get to read about the small child making your boring gray crewneck sweater.”
Really, though, the deal makes perfect sense. In the long run, it may end up looking like a preview of where Chinese consumer companies are heading next.
Chinese ecommerce giants conquered the global market largely by selling cheap stuff at eye-watering scale. Companies like Shein and Temu thrived in part because of the “de minimis” loophole, a US trade rule that allowed packages worth under $800 to enter the country tariff-free and with relatively little customs scrutiny. That system became the backbone of a new era of cross-border ecommerce, enabling Chinese companies to ship cheap stuff directly to American consumers faster and more efficiently than many traditional retailers could manage.
But after US president Donald Trump imposed sweeping new tariffs on Chinese imports and ended the de minimis exemption, the economics underpinning that model began to falter. Chinese companies quickly realized they could no longer rely solely on flooding Western markets with bargain-priced products. If they wanted to keep growing internationally, they needed something more durable: a good old-fashioned brand.
Shein buying Everlane, however culturally cursed it may appear, is part of a broader trend already unfolding across Chinese commerce and manufacturing. Increasingly, Chinese companies are trying to move beyond anonymous low-cost production and toward owning recognizable global brands associated with quality, lifestyle, and status.
One of the clearest examples comes from Temu’s parent company, Pinduoduo. In March, the company announced a major new initiative called New PinMu, a multibillion-dollar effort designed to help Chinese manufacturers build premium international brands. The project is part of a larger strategic vision outlined by Pinduoduo co-CEO Jiazhen Zhao, who has been hyping up the company’s ambitions to elevate manufacturing standards and create pathways for Chinese factories to move up the value chain.
Meanwhile, Luckin Coffee, a Chinese coffee chain that has become one of Starbucks’ biggest rivals, recently acquired Blue Bottle, the cultish specialty coffee brand that helped define American third-wave coffee culture. Anta Sports, a Chinese sportswear giant that began largely as a domestic sneaker company, has spent years buying into premium global sportswear brands, including controlling stakes in Arc’teryx and Salomon.
The trend also reflects broader political pressures inside China. The government has become increasingly critical of the brutal price wars and hypercompetition that dominate industries like ecommerce and electric cars, a phenomenon often referred to as “involution.” Beijing now wants companies to focus more on sustainable growth, higher-end manufacturing, and global competitiveness rather than an endless race to the bottom.
Tech
This Monitor-on-Wheels Concept Is Kind of Genius
I’m torn on the price of the Movestyle, though. I love how affordable it is at $580, putting it within a more mainstream budget than I would have assumed. On the other hand, this is a very unique product, and I think higher-end specs might have been a better choice. This is a VA panel rather than IPS, and that means the color accuracy and saturation are OK, but not the best. Although it’s only rated for up to 250 nits of brightness, it topped out at 310 nits when measured against my colorimeter. But it’s not terribly bright, which could be a problem in a brightly-lit room. The display quality isn’t horrible, and this monitor isn’t made for professional video work.
And yet, in terms of the viewing experience, it doesn’t feel all that high-quality, either. For a similar price, you can get a more capable OLED monitor that’s brighter, faster, more colorful, and capable of HDR. But that doesn’t come with the adjustable, rolling stand. An even higher-end monitor would increase the price by at least a few hundred dollars. The lack of a touchscreen feels like a missed opportunity, too, especially since this could easily be used next to a desk or in a kitchen. There are just some cases where using your fingers is easier than using a remote.
Photograph: Luke Larsen
Interestingly, Samsung does sell a more premium Movingstyle monitor that’s even touchscreen-enabled and has a higher refresh rate of 120 Hz for gaming. But it’s a smaller 27-inch panel, comes with a lower-resolution 1440p display, and costs significantly more at $1,200. Whew. Another handy feature of the pricier model is a built-in battery. That means when the cord is unplugged, it doesn’t just immediately die. Speaking of the length of the cord, that does end up being one of the limitations of this design as a whole.
In a lot of ways, that more expensive model feels like what a Movingstyle monitor should be. For my purposes, the larger 32-inch 4K panel matches my needs better.
LG has its own version of this that moves in that direction, the LG Smart Monitor Swing. It comes with a 4K panel, measures 32 inches, and has a screen that can handle touch inputs. At $1,000, it’s priced in between the two Movingstyle monitors. For Samsung, perhaps the solution would be to sell the adjustable stand separately, which would give you the ability to pair it with whatever monitor you want.
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