Tech
Surprising iron corrosion during electrochemical charging explains origin of atypical hydrogen permeation behavior
The transition from a carbon-based fuel economy to that centered on hydrogen has gained interest worldwide given the focus on sustainability. As researchers in corrosion, it became obvious for us to look at the underlying interaction of hydrogen with materials as it forms the backbone of the hydrogen infrastructure, especially with respect to hydrogen transportation. For example, pipelines carrying hydrogen blended with natural gas offer an economic means of transporting hydrogen over long distances.
Of critical interest for such applications is the hydrogen diffusion characteristics in such steels as it gives fundamental knowledge of the threshold amount of hydrogen that can cause failure.
Reliably measuring the diffusion coefficient of hydrogen in steels is of great value to researchers working in the area of hydrogen-material interactions.
When we set out to measure the diffusion characteristics of hydrogen in steels, we thought it could simply be followed from the ASTM (American Society for Testing of Materials) standard already available. We thought that we would indeed measure a typical hydrogen permeation transient using a classical Devanathan-Stachurski double permeation cell.
In this approach, upon hydrogen charging on one side of the sample, the first atomic hydrogen is detected on the other side after a breakthrough time, followed by a “rise” in the hydrogen flux and finally attaining a steady state from which the diffusion coefficient could be evaluated.
Although it looked straightforward, we faced challenges in implementing this in our lab. The first question we struggled with was obtaining the so-called steady state hydrogen permeation flux. For a typical electrochemical permeation measurement, we had to charge the sample with hydrogen at a certain current density.
The only question was by how much? From what we saw in literature, we tried to use severe charging conditions in alkaline electrolyte to begin with and we could not achieve this steady state. The flux reached a maximum and started to decrease thereafter, showing atypical behavior.
Trying to repeat the measurements were in vain, but what we noticed and what indeed puzzled us was some visible color change on the hydrogen charging side of the steel surface just after the measurement.
So, we immediately investigated the surface using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) to indeed observe cracked layers and randomly distributed particles all over the sample. These particles showed a peak corresponding to oxygen when analyzed with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS), prompting us to think they were iron oxides and encouraging us to use complementary characterization techniques to further identify them.
We used Raman spectroscopy to identify mixed iron oxides comprising of magnetite (Fe3O4), hematite (Fe2O3), and lepidocrocite (γ-FeOOH). Further, we calculated, using X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), depth profiling, the thickness of the oxide to be around 50 nm.
We could also confirm this using Focused Ion Beam (FIB) milling and SEM cross-section imaging. But, formation of iron oxides during hydrogen charging was really surprising because the electrochemical conditions we used don’t generally support iron corrosion.
So, we proposed a hypothesis that during hydrogen charging, the formation of hydrogen bubbles occurs, and they attach to the surface of the steel. Due to this, the polarization potential applied to the steel is actually not realized on the surface as there is continuous and excessive hydrogen bubble formation.
As a result, an Ohmic drop across the bubbles occurs which, along with a higher pH value due to hydrogen evolution, could result in iron corrosion, according to the Pourbaix diagram.
This results in iron oxide formation, which we also confirmed by measuring the thickness using XPS and observation of particles on the surface using SEM for an independent electrochemical hydrogen charging experiment.
The results of this study were published in Corrosion Science.
But one might wonder how does the formation of iron oxide explain the atypical behavior of the hydrogen permeation flux. We suggested that these hydrogen bubbles, after growing up to a critical size, detach from the surface and therefore expose the underlying iron oxide.
The oxides then immediately undergo reduction owing to the electrochemical potential applied, and further result in the formation of fresh catalytic iron that enhances the hydrogen activity and promotes higher hydrogen flux.
On the other hand, the formation of iron oxide could also block hydrogen permeation, which could explain the decrease after reaching the maximum in the hydrogen permeation flux.
Having found out that severe charging leads to iron corrosion and surface effects during hydrogen permeation, we employed electrochemical impedance spectroscopy to further prove that the iron oxide grows during hydrogen charging.
By measuring a corresponding higher charge transfer resistance for the oxide, we indeed showed that it influences the hydrogen permeation behavior. We also made use of the electron backscattered diffraction (EBSD) technique to show that such severe charging leads to generation of new dislocations that introduce artifacts into the measurement of the hydrogen diffusion constant.
All this meant that we had to devise a strategy to avoid severe charging, so we came up with the idea of “soft” charging where we used much lower hydrogen charging current densities for performing the hydrogen permeation measurement.
Guess what, the idea worked!
We could measure a steady-state in the hydrogen permeation flux which did not decrease with time. We could clearly correlate this observation to the significant decrease in the amount of iron oxides visible on the surface using SEM and the almost negligible number of dislocations introduced using EBSD.
Thus, we suggest the use of “soft” hydrogen charging to measure reliably the diffusion constant of hydrogen in steels.
In essence, we report a surprising observation of iron corrosion during hydrogen charging in an electrochemical permeation measurement and suggest ways to circumvent this for reliably measuring the diffusion constant of hydrogen in steels. We believe this could be of great use to researchers working in the area of hydrogen-material interactions, the electrochemistry and corrosion community.
This story is part of Science X Dialog, where researchers can report findings from their published research articles. Visit this page for information about Science X Dialog and how to participate.
More information:
Gautam Sudha et al, Towards establishing reliable approaches for measurement of hydrogen diffusion characteristics using the electrochemical permeation technique, Corrosion Science (2026). DOI: 10.1016/j.corsci.2025.113449
Vijayshankar Dandapani is an Associate Professor in the Metallurgical Engineering and Materials Science Department, Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), Bombay where he heads the Electrochemistry at Interface Lab. He works in the area of hydrogen, electrochemistry and corrosion.
Citation:
Surprising iron corrosion during electrochemical charging explains origin of atypical hydrogen permeation behavior (2025, November 7)
retrieved 7 November 2025
from https://techxplore.com/news/2025-11-iron-corrosion-electrochemical-atypical-hydrogen.html
This document is subject to copyright. Apart from any fair dealing for the purpose of private study or research, no
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Tech
Don’t Sleep on This Brooklinen Flash Sale
Winter bedding is different from summer bedding—thicker, loftier, softer, cozier—and now’s the perfect time to upgrade thanks to Brooklinen’s Flash Sale. We test a lot of bedding at WIRED for our numerous sleep-related buying guides, and Brooklinen is mentioned in nearly all of them. Its bedding is high-quality, aesthetically pleasing, and functions like it should. The brand hosts relatively frequent sales, but it’s rare that so many of our top picks are discounted at the same time. Many of our favorite bedding items we’ve hand-tested on our own beds are on sale through November 10. If you’re in the market for new sheets, quilts, or even a down comforter, we’ve highlighted our recommendations below.
Good bedding starts with good sheets. You can get 20 percent off the Luxe Sateen Core Sheet set in 21 colors across six sizes; they’re some of our favorite sateen sheets thanks to their silky, cooling texture and thick, quick-to-warm weave. They’re slick and slinky, and they warm up faster than traditional cotton sheets. If you don’t love sateen or you don’t need the warmth it provides, there’s also a deal on crispy, crinkly percale sheets that WIRED bedding expert Nena Farrell recommends.
Once you’ve upgraded your sheets, top them with a down comforter or quilt. For folks in colder climates, the Brooklinen All-Season Down Comforter ($60 off) is a worthy choice. I tested it during the coldest months of the year in northern Illinois, and it kept me plenty warm while offering that classic, crinkly, hotel-like experience. The baffle box construction keeps the down evenly dispersed, and it’s lofty without feeling too lightweight. You could also go with the pricier ultra-warm option, but that was almost too warm for me. It’d be nice if you need a heavy comforter or you run very cold. For additional blanket options, Brooklinen’s AirWeave line has a few contenders on sale, all of which I’ve liked.
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Tech
Denmark’s government aims to ban access to social media for children under 15
Denmark’s government on Friday announced an agreement to ban access to social media for anyone under 15, ratcheting up pressure on Big Tech platforms as concerns grow that kids are getting too swept up in a digitized world of harmful content and commercial interests.
The move would give some parents—after a specific assessment—the right to let their children access social media from age 13. It wasn’t immediately clear how such a ban would be enforced: Many tech platforms already restrict pre-teens from signing up. Officials and experts say such restrictions don’t always work.
Such a measure would be among the most sweeping steps yet by a European Union government to limit use of social media among teens and younger children, which has drawn concerns in many parts of an increasingly online world.
Speaking to The Associated Press, Caroline Stage, Denmark’s minister for digital affairs, said 94% of Danish children under age 13 have profiles on at least one social media platform, and more than half of those under 10 do.
“The amount of time they spend online—the amount of violence, self-harm that they are exposed to online—is simply too great a risk for our children,” she said, while praising tech giants as “the greatest companies that we have. They have an absurd amount of money available, but they’re simply not willing to invest in the safety of our children, invest in the safety of all of us.”
No rush to legislation, no loopholes for tech giants
Stage said a ban won’t take effect immediately. Allied lawmakers on the issue from across the political spectrum who make up a majority in parliament will likely take months to pass relevant legislation.
“I can assure you that Denmark will hurry, but we won’t do it too quickly because we need to make sure that the regulation is right and that there is no loopholes for the tech giants to go through,” Stage said. Her ministry said pressure from tech giants’ business models was “too massive.”
It follows a move in December in Australia, where parliament enacted the world’s first ban on social media for children—setting the minimum age at 16.
That made platforms including TikTok, Facebook, Snapchat, Reddit, X and Instagram subject to fines of up to 50 million Australian dollars ($33 million) for systemic failures to prevent children younger than 16 from holding accounts.
Officials in Denmark didn’t say how such a ban would be enforced in a world where millions of children have easy access to screens. But Stage noted that Denmark has a national electronic ID system—nearly all Danish citizens over age 13 have such an ID—and plans to set up an age-verification app. Several other EU countries are testing such apps.
“We cannot force the tech giants to use our app, but what we can do is force the tech giants to make proper age verification, and if they don’t, we will be able to enforce through the EU commission and make sure that they will be fined up to 6% of their global income.”
Aiming to shield kids from harmful content online
Many governments have been grappling with ways of limiting harmful fallout from online technologies, without overly squelching their promise. Stage said Denmark’s legislative push was “not about excluding children from everything digital”—but keeping them away from harmful content.
China—which manufacturers many of the world’s digital devices—has set limits on online game time and smart-phone time for kids.
Prosecutors in Paris this week announced an investigation into allegations that TikTok allows content promoting suicide and that its algorithms may encourage vulnerable young people to take their own lives.
“Children and young people have their sleep disrupted, lose their peace and concentration, and experience increasing pressure from digital relationships where adults are not always present,” the Danish ministry said. “This is a development that no parent, teacher or educator can stop alone.”
The EU’s Digital Services Act, which took effect two years ago, forbids children younger than 13 to hold accounts on social media like TikTok and Instagram, video sharing platforms like YouTube and Twitch, and sites like Reddit and Discord, as well as AI companions.
Many social media platforms have for years banned anyone 13 or under from signing up for their services. TikTok users can verify their ages by submitting a selfie that will be analyzed to estimate their age. Meta Platforms, parent of Instagram and Facebook, says it uses a similar system for video selfies and AI to help figure out a user’s age.
TikTok said in an email that it recognizes the importance of Denmark’s initiative.
“At TikTok, we have steadfastly created a robust trust and safety track record, with more than 50 preset safety features for teen accounts, as well as age appropriate experiences and tools for guardians such as Family Pairing,” a tool allowing parents, guardians, and teens to customize safety settings.
We look forward to working constructively on solutions that apply consistently across the industry,” it added.
Meta didn’t respond immediately to requests for comment from the AP.
“We’ve given the tech giants so many chances to stand up and to do something about what is happening on their platforms. They haven’t done it,” said Stage, the Danish minister. “So now we will take over the steering wheel and make sure that our children’s futures are safe.”
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Citation:
Denmark’s government aims to ban access to social media for children under 15 (2025, November 7)
retrieved 7 November 2025
from https://techxplore.com/news/2025-11-denmark-aims-access-social-media.html
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part may be reproduced without the written permission. The content is provided for information purposes only.
Tech
All-Clad Cookware Is Expensive, but This Limited-Time Sale Makes It Much More Affordable
All-Clad deals are hard to find, but the cookware lasts for years and years. Using bad cookware can make even the most competent chefs feel like they’re in an episode of Kitchen Nightmares. Chefs and culinary experts worldwide use All-Clad pans as the gold standard, including many of us on the WIRED Reviews team.
So, how do you snag this coveted cookware at the best price? One surefire way to save money on All-Clad is by shopping its Factory Seconds sale, which comes around every few months. Factory Seconds are products with minor imperfections that work as intended. This sale is scheduled to end November 17, though these events are often extended (and we imagine there will be a sale around Black Friday, too). We’ve listed our favorite discounts below.
Don’t miss our separate deals to get $30 off an All-Clad Nonstick Fry Pan Set and $800 off the All-Clad Pizza Oven.
Updated November 7: We’ve added new deals from the extended sale and double-checked for link and pricing accuracy throughout.
Best All-Clad Factory Seconds Deals
Below, we’ve highlighted noteworthy discounts from the broader sale. The “before” prices are based on items in new condition. Also, check out our related buying guides, including the Best Chef’s Knives, Best Meal Kit Services, and Best Espresso Machines.
The Essential is a staple in many Reviews team members’ kitchens. We like that it works well for all kinds of tasks, whether you’re making a pan sauce or getting a sear on some meat. Its high walls prevent grease from splattering on your countertop, and it can double as a flat-bottomed wok or even a Dutch oven. It’s also dishwasher-safe.
If you tend to splash your sautéed vegetables out of the frying pan, a deeper sauté pan is just what you need. This one has a large base to cook in, but tall walls to keep your ingredients inside the pan and off your stove. Plus, the sides are flat, so you can use them for leverage if you’re flipping something with a spatula.
A good stainless steel frying pan is non-negotiable for your kitchen arsenal. This 12-inch pan isn’t too big or too small. You may encounter a learning curve if you’re used to cooking on nonstick—make sure your grease or oil is hot before adding food—but once you get the hang of cooking on stainless steel, you’ll probably reach for it more frequently than you do your other pans.
This induction-friendly nonstick fry pan is a versatile medium size, so it’ll work for sandwiches, French toast, eggs, and pan-frying veggies. As with all PTFE-coated pans, you should opt for the lowest heat you need, and you should avoid heating an empty pan. Use nonstick-safe utensils, too! Every chef needs a solid nonstick pan in their cookware stash. This deal is a great one if you’re in the market.
This stockpot has a large capacity and is great to have around for soups, stews, and stocks—aka the three most important meals of autumn and winter. I also like using pots like these for reheating big batches of leftovers. The inside has a PTFE nonstick coating, so make sure to use nonstick-safe utensils. Nonstick stock pots are great for preventing vegetables from sticking or for cooking without excess fat or oil.
This nonstick sauté pan has a wide bottom and straight sides, which help to prevent splatter while still maximizing your cooking surface. The PTFE coating allows for easy turning, scrambling, and maneuvering, and the lid lets you control evaporation or lock in heat. I also appreciate the long handle and extra handle on the opposite side for when I’m moving the pan to the counter or opposite burner.
Live your Waffle House chef dreams with this double-burner griddle. It measures 13 by 20 inches and is ideal for cooking up pancakes, eggs, or burgers. It’s not as convenient as an electric griddle in some regards—there’s no built-in grease trap—but it also won’t take up an entire kitchen cabinet or valuable Sunday morning counter space. It’s technically dishwasher-safe, but we recommend washing it by hand to preserve the PTFE coating.
Photograph: All-Clad
The melding of copper, aluminum, and 18/10 stick-resistant stainless makes for one of the best heat-conducting pans WIRED reviewer Scott Gilbertson has in his kitchen (aside from cast iron). He uses a smaller version for sauces, boiling potatoes, making bourbon-bacon bark, and countless other tasks. He says this is a kitchen workhorse. The included lid reduces evaporation.
Holiday cookie season is fast approaching. This bakeware set will help you prepare treats for all of your neighbors, friends, and neighbors’ friends. It comes with two cookie sheets and a wire cooling rack, so when you’re baking big batches, everything will have a chance to cool down before decorating. I can attest to the cookie sheets’ nonstick power, and that same coating makes them easier to clean when all the baking is finished. If you need a set with more pieces, including a muffin tin, check this option out.
This nonstick roaster measures 16 by 13 inches, so it’s big enough for a small turkey or a large quantity of roasted vegetables or other sides. Since it’s nonstick, you probably don’t want to rely on scraping up a fond to make a pan sauce with drippings, but it’s still going to come in handy if you regularly roast delicate items and simply need a big pan that can withstand the high heat of the oven.
If you’re looking for a way to roast up your holiday meats, this is a good option. (Just note that it doesn’t come with a rack.) The stainless steel roaster measures about 16 by 13 inches and can comfortably fit a turkey weighing up to 20 pounds. It’s oven-safe to 600 degrees Fahrenheit and durable enough that you can scrape the bottom to create a pan sauce using all that collected flavor.
Being from the Midwest, I know all too well that “grilling season” is more of a state of mind than it is an actual time of year. All-Clad makes great outdoor cookware that I frequently reach for while doing any cooking outside, whether from my backyard or from the campground. This set includes an 11-inch round grill, a large roaster, and a grill grid. These are perfect for imparting that roasty, smoky, charcoal-y flavor without running the risk of losing your asparagus or salmon to the flames below. And I like that the handles are large enough to grab while wearing oven mitts.
You really, really don’t want to use metal utensils on nonstick pans. This set comes with all the nonstick kitchen accessories you’d frequently reach for, including a slotted spoon, a turner, a flexible slotted turner, and a ladle. You’ll even get a canister so you can store them on your counter instead of shoving them into a drawer and crossing your fingers that you’ll be able to open it later. They’re heat-safe to 425 degrees Fahrenheit.
What Are All-Clad Factory Seconds?
The Factory Seconds Event is run by Home and Cook Sales, an authorized reseller for All-Clad and several other cookware brands. The items featured in the sale (usually) have minor imperfections, like a scuff on the pan, a misaligned name stamp, or simply a dented box. Every product on the website lists the nature of the imperfection in the title (e.g., packaging damage). You’ll need to enter an email address to access the sale.
While the blemishes vary, the merchant says all of the cookware will perform as intended. Should any issue arise, nearly every All-Clad Factory Seconds product is backed by All-Clad’s limited lifetime warranty. (Electric items have a slightly different warranty; check individual product pages for details.) We’ve used more than a dozen Factory Seconds pots, pans, and accessories, and they’ve all worked exactly as advertised. Just remember that all sales are final, and note that you’ll have to pay $10 for shipping. It’s also worth noting that the “before” prices are based on buying the items new, but we still think it offers a good indication of how much you’re saving versus the value you’re getting.
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